Francesco Bandello

Diabetic macular edema (DME) is one of the leading causes of visual impairment in patients with diabetes. Multimodal imaging (MMI) has allowed a shift from DME diagnosis to prognosis. Although there are no accepted guidelines, MMI may also lead to treatment customization. Several study groups have tried to identify structural biomarkers that can predict treatment response and long-term visual prognosis. The purpose of this editorial is to review currently proposed optical coherence tomography (OCT) and optical coherence tomography angiography (OCT-A) biomarkers.

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a complex and multifactorial disease characterized by the damage of the unit comprised of the photoreceptors, retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), Bruch's membrane, and choriocapillaris. Although the outer retina appears to be mainly affected in this disorder, several evidences exhibit that also the inner retina may be impaired. In this review we will provide a description of the prominent histologic and imaging findings suggesting an inner retinal loss in these eyes. In details, structural optical coherence tomography (OCT) technology proved either the inner and outer retina is impacted by AMD and that these two impairments are associated. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to provide a description of the role of neurodegeneration in AMD in order to better understand the relationship between neuronal loss and the outer retinal damage in this disease.

Purpose To longitudinally investigate choroidal and choriocapillaris perfusion metrics and the number of choroidal hyperreflective foci (HRF) in patients with acute leukaemia (AL) before and after disease remission and to correlate these metrics with systemic parameters during active disease. Methods Prospective, longitudinal study of 26 eyes of 14 AL patients. All patients underwent optical coherence tomography (OCT) and OCT‐angiography (OCTA) in the acute phase. Subfoveal choroidal thickness (CT), total, luminal and stromal choroidal area (TCA, LCA, SCA), choroidal vascularity index (CVI), choriocapillaris flow deficits (cFD) density, and choroidal HRF number were computed. In a subset, the measurements were repeated after AL remission. Age‐ and gender‐matched 26 healthy controls were recruited for cross‐sectional comparisons. Results Patient's mean age was 59 ± 12 years. The TCA, LCA, SCA and choroidal HRF number were significantly higher in patients than controls ( p = 0.028, p = 0.044, p = 0.024 and p = 0.001, respectively). Lower haemoglobin levels were associated with lower CT ( r = 0.58, p = 0.008). Higher D‐dimer values were associated with lower TCA ( r = −0.52, p = 0.008), lower LCA ( r = −0.50, p = 0.006), higher cFD density ( r = 0.41, p = 0.044) and higher choroidal HRF number ( r = 0.47, p = 0.008). The CT, TCA, SCA and choroidal HRF number significantly reduced after AL remission ( p = 0.001, p = 0.047, p = 0.007 and p = 0.002 respectively). The CVI increased significantly compared to the active phase ( p = 0.013). Conclusion The study demonstrates a subclinical choroidal involvement in patients with AL, with relative stromal thickening in the acute phase, and normalization after disease remission. Choroidal HRF were identified as a biomarker of leukaemic choroidopathy. Choriocapillaris and choroidal vascularity were inversely correlated with a systemic pro‐coagulant state.