Hillard M. Lazarus

Colony‐stimulating factors have been shown to improve anti‐disialoganglioside 2 (anti‐GD2) monoclonal antibody response in high‐risk neuroblastoma by enhancing antibody‐dependent cell‐mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC). A substantial amount of research has focused on recombinant human granulocyte‐macrophage colony‐stimulating factor (GM‐CSF) as an adjuvant to anti‐GD2 monoclonal antibodies. There may be a disparity in care among patients as access to GM‐CSF therapy and anti‐GD2 monoclonal antibodies is not uniform. Only select countries have approved these agents for use, and even with regulatory approvals, access to these agents can be complex and cost prohibitive. This comprehensive review summarizes clinical data regarding efficacy and safety of GM‐CSF, recombinant human granulocyte colony‐stimulating factor (G‐CSF) or no cytokine in combination with anti‐GD2 monoclonal antibodies (ie, dinutuximab, dinutuximab beta or naxitamab) for immunotherapy of patients with high‐risk neuroblastoma. A substantial body of clinical data support the immunotherapy combination of anti‐GD2 monoclonal antibodies and GM‐CSF. In contrast, clinical data supporting the use of G‐CSF are limited. No formal comparison between GM‐CSF, G‐CSF and no cytokine has been identified. The treatment of high‐risk neuroblastoma with anti‐GD2 therapy plus GM‐CSF is well established. Suboptimal efficacy outcomes with G‐CSF raise concerns about its suitability as an alternative to GM‐CSF as an adjuvant in immunotherapy for patients with high‐risk neuroblastoma. While programs exist to facilitate obtaining GM‐CSF and anti‐GD2 monoclonal antibodies in regions where they are not commercially available, continued work is needed to ensure equitable therapeutic options are available globally.