Konstantinos Karampidis

The field of brain–computer interface (BCI) enables us to establish a pathway between the human brain and computers, with applications in the medical and nonmedical field. Brain computer interfaces can have a significant impact on the way humans interact with machines. In recent years, the surge in computational power has enabled deep learning algorithms to act as a robust avenue for leveraging BCIs. This paper provides an up-to-date review of deep and hybrid deep learning techniques utilized in the field of BCI through motor imagery. It delves into the adoption of deep learning techniques, including convolutional neural networks (CNNs), autoencoders (AEs), and recurrent structures such as long short-term memory (LSTM) networks. Moreover, hybrid approaches, such as combining CNNs with LSTMs or AEs and other techniques, are reviewed for their potential to enhance classification performance. Finally, we address challenges within motor imagery BCIs and highlight further research directions in this emerging field.