Małgorzata Jakubowska

This work demonstrates the successful application of the picein wax carbon composite electrode (PWCCE) for profiling both commercial and homemade plant milks. Picein wax was utilized as an unconventional binder. The resulting electrode paste exhibited a solidified and hard texture, enabling its use in a manner analogous to that of the glassy carbon electrode. Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) with an automated measurement and recording procedure was employed to obtain plant-based milk profiles. The utilization of operator-independent measurement procedures yielded high-quality electrochemical fingerprints suitable for subsequent calculations. To interpret the data, unsupervised machine learning methods were implemented, such as principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis. These chemometric techniques confirmed the electrode effectiveness of the construction for this type of research. Moreover, they proved valuable in distinguishing between plant-based milk and cow’s milk, including two different variants: whole milk and lactose-free milk.